Book Launch: Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang

Professor James A. Millward, an Asian Policy Studies Scholar at the Wilson Center, 2001-2002, noted that three themes have defined the history of China's northwest province of Xinjiang. The first is geology and the environment, the second is its connectivity and linkages to other regions, and the third includes modes of social and political identity. In terms of geology, it was continental drift, somewhere between 15 and 22 million years ago, which formed the current mountains in the region. These mountains, in turn, blocked rain into Xinjiang, thus determining its arid climate.

Agriculture was possible, however, in the southern oases of Xinjiang, around the Tarim Basin, and this allowed for the production of grain and cotton, two staples of the Silk Road trade. North of the Tianshan Mountains, the climate was truly arid, and this resulted in nomadic pastoralism. The people were herders of cattle, sheep, and most especially, horses. Since the military edge lay with those who raised horses, these people ruled the region. Millward also noted that the steppes in the northern region were really a continuum with Mongolia and North China. Throughout history, whenever there was a conflict between the settled Chinese and the northern nomads, the conflict would eventually spread westward, toward Xinjiang. China's policy was to cut off the nomad grain source, and this policy was implemented during the Han, Tang, Yuan and Qing dynasties.

In the 18th century, the Qing dynasty was able for the first time to put Xinjiang under permanent Chinese control. The Qing built walled cities, first as garrisons, but then allowed economic activity to develop. Qing rulers expanded the arable land, both to increase the tax base, and also to grow cotton, which could be traded for horses, a basic need of the military. This major increase in agricultural production and farming continued into the 19th century.

It was the Qing dynasty which encouraged Han Chinese migration, first from 1780-1830 in the north and east of Xinjiang, and then, after 1830, into the southern regions. Xinjiang was increasingly seen as part of China. The population, both indigenous Uyghur and Han, increased steadily from the Qing dynasty conquest in the late 18th century to modern times. At present, said Millward, the number of Uyghur and Han in Xinjiang are roughly in parity, although perhaps there may be a few more Han.

During the Cold War, Xinjiang found itself in an anomalous position. Traditionally, it had been a crossroads between East and West, but between the 1950s and 1980s, the Chinese saw it as a security buffer, and purposely maintained it as a remote and backward area. There was only a single-track railroad to the capital of Urumqi.

With the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Chinese government made a conscious decision to develop Xinjiang. The Karakorum highway was built, connecting Xinjiang with Pakistan, other paved highways were built, and, in 1999, a rail link opened to Kashgar. The Chinese also opened Xinjiang to foreign trade, and although the amount, $5.7 billion in 2004, is not large, the trade is expanding.

On the other hand, with economic activity increasing vastly over the last 10 years, Millward characterized Xinjiang's economic development as "frontier-style." He explained that the environment has sustained significant degradation, especially in terms of forests and water. Desert area is increasing, at the alarming rate of 400 square kilometers per year. Global warming has also taken its toll. With fewer glaciers and less snow pack, there is less water for agricultural production.

Millward further noted that while Uyghurs and other minorities in Xinjiang are Muslim, the post-9/11 era has been marked by relatively little terrorist activity. However, the Han Chinese and the Uyghurs do not mix, and there is "palpable tension" between the two groups. Millward predicted problems in integrating the country unless the Chinese government moves to lessen these tensions.

Drafted by Mark Mohr, Asia Program Associate
Robert M. Hathaway, Director, Asia Program. Ph: (202) 691-4020